Vessel traffic services (VTS) are maritime traffic monitoring systems used in port approaches, confined or congested waters. VTS operators (VTSOs) monitor a specific geographical area and support and direct ships that sail through the area, primarily making the navigating officer or pilot of each ship aware of the current traffic situation, local weather and geographical conditions. We used an interactive mid-fidelity simulation as a knowledge eliciting tool to explore the work situation of VTSOs.

During the simulation, VTSOs from a VTS centre in Sweden ran a scenario based on a normal traffic situation in their local fairway. Results indicate that the VTSOs, even though they are well aware of crucial events in the fairway, at times choose not to inform navigating officers or pilots of these safety aspects apart from when subject to protocol.

The present paper put forward elements behind this form of miscommunication and presents results indicating that the major contributing factor is the VTSOs’ anticipation of negative attitudes between working groups participating in the VTS system and the lack of sufficient regulation with regard to the role and responsibilities of VTSOs.

Crisis management exercises require a lot of preparation and planning to ensure that they meet the required training objectives. This is often a time consuming and expensive process and can be a major barrier to setting up frequent crisis management training sessions. The introduction of virtual training environments to supplement the live exercises enables the development of tools to support the instructors in their planning, management, observation and analysis of training exercises. This can simplify the planning process, and give instructors control over the configuration of the exercises to tailor them to the needs of individual trainees. In this paper we present are presenting a tool that supports instructors in the planning of virtual exercises, and can be used to provide templates for live exercises. This tool has been developed closely with feedback from instructors and crisis management personnel and forms part of a crisis management virtual training system.

Exercise managers and instructors have a particularly challenging task in monitoring and controlling on-going exercises, which may involve multiple response teams and organizations in highly complex and continuously evolving crisis situations. Managers and instructors must handle potentially incomplete and conflicting field-observation data and make decisions in real-time in order to control the flow of the exercise and to keep it in line with the training objectives. In simulation-based exercises, managers and instructors have access to a rich set of real-time data, with an increased potential to closely monitor the trainees’ actions, and to keep the exercise on track. To assist exercise managers and instructors, data about the on-going exercise can be filtered, aggregated and refined by real-time decision-support systems. We have developed a model and a prototype decision-support system, using stream-based reasoning to assist exercise managers and instructors in real-time. The approach takes advantage of topic maps for ontological representation and a complex-event processing engine for analyzing the data stream from a virtual-reality simulator for crisis-management training. Aggregated data is presented both on-screen, in Twitter, and in the form of topic maps.

The development of a new technology, the definition of a new regulation or an organisational change aims to increase a positive performance (i.e. safety and cost effectiveness) or decrease a negative performance (i.e. occurrence of accidents or workload) in a system. However, change can also be the origin of consequences that have not been anticipated during the design phase. Such consequences can be positive, negative or damaging for the system. Consequently, an assessment phase is often integrated into technical, regulatory or organisational design activities. This assessment phase is generally structured with hazard identification and risk assessment steps that are followed by a cost benefit analysis and formulation of recommendations. The IMPACT project aims to extend the scope of the hazard identification phase generally based on traditional failure analysis methods (i.e. FMEA, THERP) by integrating stakeholder expertise and applying resilience engineering approaches of safety management. The project has also tested the possibility to use a cluster of bridge simulators together with a system for data collection and visualization in order to explore the consequences of change in maritime settings.

Motivation – Designing distributed training systems for crisis management (CM) requires an approach with the ability to address a great variety of needs and goals. Crisis responses involve multiple agents, each with different backgrounds, tasks, priorities, goals, responsibilities, organizations, equipment, and approaches. Identifying the different user training needs and translating these into user and functional requirement therefore poses great challenges.

Research approach – In this paper we present experiences of how to enable the collaboration between multiple stakeholders and partners when creating and adapting ideas throughout the design phase. The technique has been used in a European project aimed at developing an interactive Virtual Reality (VR) environment for training crisis management.

Findings/Design – The focus of the paper is on the initial storyboard iterations and lo-fi prototypes, as this is a crucial stage for expressing ideas in a perceivable way without having to spend too much time and effort on creating detailed prototypes.

Take away message – Experiences using low-cost commercial software for creating storyboards are presented, as these provided the means to create, share, present, adapt and circulate ideas, facilitating the fusing of ideas, shared understanding and distributed working.

A critical step in any system-development process is to identify and understand user needs and to translate these into requirements specifications. An increasingly common approach for eliciting needs and identifying requirements is to use scenarios and to model these scenarios using storyboards. The art of storyboarding is evolving as new technologies provide simple and innovative ways for designers and others to visualize events, activities and interactions. Currently there are commercial software and web-based tools for making low- and high-fidelity prototypes and for reenacting an event or process. Such tools present a new era as ideas easily can be presented, adapted and circulating between all collaborators – from project managers to end users, interaction designers and software developers. This paper presentsa modeling method that uses storyboarding as a technique for translating scenarios and end-user requirements into functional requirements for system development. Described is an iterative five-step method with examples of storyboards in each step.

The majority of worldwide goods transportation is carried out by ships at sea. In order to promote safety in narrow waters and around major ports, several countries have installed Vessel Traffic Services (VTS). VTS operators monitor a specific geographical area and support and direct ships that sail through the area, primarily making the navigating officer of each ship aware of the current traffic situation, local weather and geographical conditions. In this, the VTS domain represents a civilian Command, Control, Communications, Computer and Intelligence (C4I) environment. Identifying user needs and analysing user behaviour in these environments require appropriate methods that are comprehensive and valid. This paper presentsan adapted use of the Applied Cognitive Task Analysis (ACTA) in a case study where an interactive mid-fidelity scenario for the phase of the Simulation Interview has been used. The use of the interactive simulation as a knowledge eliciting tool within the context of ACTA is discussed and assessed using Hoffman’s method evaluation criteria.

Virtual Reality (VR) enables new ways of training emergency-response personnel to manage various critical situations. However, the new opportunities also raise questions how trainees interact with the VR-environment. In this paper we explore different interfaces that can be considered in training a joint command team with members from different professions.

The concept of team is central to the dynamic control of complex and dynamic situations, where control demands extend beyond the capabilities of a single commander. Command teams are composed of leading officials representing multiple organizations supported by staff officers and systems operators. Role playing exercises are simulation-based exercises where the participants are real decision makers, who act in their professional roles. Such exercises strive for realism in that it uses real groups, tasks, ecological settings, and social system in the simulation content.

Interfaces to VR for command team training operate on three levels: representation, stimulation and immersion. The first level of VR support is to use the VR environment as a common representation of the state of the simulated world, which is reported back to the trainees by the training staff. The next level of VR support adds the ability for the command team to receive information directly from the VR environment by means of stimulation, which means that that a subset of the information available in the VR-environment is presented in various displays used by the trainees. The third level of VR support introduces the ability for command team members to be immersed in the VR environment.

VR can extend the capabilities of established and time-tested simulation-based methods for command team training. Selecting the appropriate level of VR support when designing interfaces is crucial for the functionality of the resulting training system. Interfaces based on VR representation and VR stimulation are straightforward to introduce in the training situation, whereas it necessary to proceed with caution when considering solutions based on VR immersion. VR immersion is a technology that affects the fundamental principles of teamwork and team training.

Applied Cognitive Task Analysis (ACTA), is a method typically used to elicit cognitive aspects of expert performance while studying cognitive elements connected with a certain task. Within the maritime domain, the method of ACTA has been used in two parallel studies; one studying Vessel Traffic Service Operators, monitoring maritime traffic movements within a set geographic area, the other studying navigating officers’ implicit skill of ship-handling (the manoeuvring of the vessel). In both studies ACTA was used to elicit what type of information the Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) use as well as when, why and how they use the information. To better do this, the Simulation Interview in ACTA was developed to be based on a mid-fidelity simulation presented to the SME, during which the SME was asked to interact with an evolving scenario. By being able to follow the SMEs way of reasoning, the effect of this developed technique was the possibility to collect more extensive data, resulting in a more profound understanding of the SMEs use of information. This article discusses the possibilities and drawbacks with using a technique based on a mid-fidelity simulation and also suggest changes in order to develop the technique further.

Changes in the working environment can affect safety, especially in time-critical situations where wrong decisions can have decisive impact on man, environment and property Organizational changes, the introduction of new technology and new legislation are example of various factors that affect the working environment. In this paper we present an approach to explore safety issues in maritime working environments by using complex simulation to create realistic scenarios and data collection to build the basis for exploration. In this paper we focus on the validity of the method and compare findings with actual accidents known risks. We also give some examples of found safety aspects that can be of interest for further analysis in the maritime domain.

Simulation of outbreaks of infectious disease is an important tool for understanding the dynamics of the outbreak process, the impact of disease and popula-tion properties, and the potential effect of interventions. However, the interpretation of the simulation results requires a clear understanding of the assumptions made in the underlying model. Typical simulation tasks, such as exploring the space of different scenarios for population and disease properties, require multiple runs with varying model parameters. For such complex tasks, the management of the as-sumptions made becomes a daunting and potentially error-prone undertaking. We report explicit assumptions management as an approach to capture, model, and document the assumptions for simulator runs. It was found possible to extend ontology-based simulation, which uses an ontological model to parameterize the simulator, to incorporate an assumptions model in the ontology. We conclude that explicit as-sumptions modeling should be part of any infectious disease simulation architecture from start.

Using time geographic theory for representation of population mixing, we set out to analyze the relative impact from precautionary behaviors on outbreaks of pandemic influenza in Europe and Asia. We extended an existing simulator environment with behavioral parameters from a population survey to model different behaviors. We found that precautionary behaviors even among a minority of the population can have a decisive effect on the probability of the outbreak to propagate. The results also display that assumptions strongly influences the outcome. Depending on the interpretation of how many “children” are kept from “school”, R0 changes from a range where outbreak progression is possible to a range where it is improbable in both European (R0=1.77/1.23) and Asian (R0=1.70/1.05) conditions. We conclude that unprompted distancing can have a decisive effect on pandemic propagation. An important response strategy can be to promote voluntary precautionary behavior shown to reduce disease transmission.

The nuclear industry is facing a number of challenges. With an aging workforce and the introduction of new technical systems in the control rooms, there are is an immediate demand for methods and tools that can increase the knowledge transfer between operators and shifts. During March and April 2009, we conducted 14 simulation exercises, involving a total of 72 nuclear control room operators, as part of the annual continuing training at Ringhals nuclear power plant. During each exercise, one shift acted as operators in a full-scale simulator while a second shift observed their work using the method structured reflective observation. After each exercise we used NASA-TLX and the Borg scale to let the trainees estimate their mental workload both as individuals and as a team. Following the exercise, we assembled the trainees in one group and the observers in a second group. Each group was coached by a facilitator and asked to define key events from the scenario that they just had experienced. The groups identified successful actions and areas of improvements. In the next phase, the trainees and the observers exchanged ideas during a structured discussion. At the end of the exercise session the participants filled out a questionnaire, in which they described the lessons learned from both acting in the control room as operators and from acting as an observer.

The CITE Observer computer system was used by the observers for writing the observation reports, and by the instructors to compile, sort and print reports to facilitate the group discussions. The reports were also handed out as documentation to the individual trainee after each exercise.

The conclusions from the exercises are that we have created an increased interest and involvement in the training situation and that the used method stimulates the trainees to formulate the training results based on group reflection and peer-to-peer feedback. We have also stimulated discussions originating from multiple perspectives, such as peer to peer, team to team, more experienced to less experienced and also junior to senior. We have found that operators who are new in their roles expect and want extensive and frequent feedback. We also found that the Borg scale is a good measure of workload (strong correlation with mental demand and effort in NASA-TLX). Finally, we have observed that the Shift Manager has an important role in the team development. An enthusiastic Shift Manager motivates the shift members to take on challenges in various situations.

Running a computer-based simulation is often a matter of developing a simulation model and executing it in a simulation engine. A transparent separation of the model from the simulation code clarifies the problem and supports model modifications (e.g., for running alternative version of the model). It is possible to use ontology-based models to specify the vocabulary for the simulation as well as other relevant concepts and relationships in the model. Such ontology-based models work well for discrete-event simulation, but can be less suitable for mathematically-oriented simulation based on equations. The ontology-based models, however, often require additional processing before it is possible to use them in a simulation engine. It is possible to use Protégé as a platform for managing ontology-based models for simulation.

We have used Protégé in combination with a custom-developed Protégé extension to support modeling for infectious-disease outbreak simulation. The extension assists users in navigating the model and in generating XML-based specifications for the simulation engine. An important advantage of this approach is that it is possible to modify the model at the Protégé level and that users can develop new models by bringing together model components, such as disease, community, and intervention submodels.

Motion sickness is not an illness, but rather a natural autonomic response to an unfamiliar or specific stimulus. The bodily responses to motion sickness are highly individual and contextually dependent, making them difficult to predict. The initial autonomic responses are similar to the ones demonstrated when under stress. When under the influence of motion sickness, motivation and ability to perform tasks or duties are limited. However, little is known about how specific cognitive functions are affected. Furthermore, standard mitigation strategies involve medications that induce fatigue or strategies that require cognitive capabilities. Both of them may result in reduced capability to perform assigned tasks or duties. Hence, there is a need for alternative mitigation strategies.

 

The aim of the thesis was to study psychophysiological and performance aspects on motion sickness. The long-term goal is to provide strategies for mitigation and prevention of motion sickness by identifying psychophysiological responses as predictors for both wellbeing and performance. This thesis comprises four studies, in which 91 participants were exposed to two different motion sickness stimuli, either an optokinetic drum or a motion platform. Before the tests, a method for extracting fixations from eye-tracking data was developed as a prerequisite for studying fixations as a possible mitigation strategy for reducing motion sickness. During exposure to stimuli that triggers motion sickness, performance was studied by testing short-term memory and encoding and retrieval. In the final study, the effects of an artificial sound horizon were studied with respect to its potential to subconsciously function as a mitigating source.

 

The results of the measurements of the psychophysiological responses were in accordance with previous research, confirming the ambiguity and high individuality of the responses as well as their contextual dependencies. To study fixations, a centroid mode algorithm proved to be the best way to generate fixations from eye-movement data. In the final study, the effects of the sound horizon were compared to the effects of a non-positioned sound. In the latter condition, both fixation time and the number of fixations increased over time, whereas none of them showed a significant time effect in the sound horizon condition. The fixation time slope was significantly larger in the non-positioned sound condition compared to the sound horizon condition. Number of fixations, heart rate, and skin conductance correlated positively with subjective statements that referred to motion sickness. Among participants that were susceptible to motion sickness symptoms, short-term memory performance was negatively affected. However, no effects of motion sickness on encoding and retrieval were found, regardless of susceptibility.

 

Future studies should continue focusing on autonomic responses and psychological issues of motion sickness. Factors such as motivation, expectancies, and previous experiences play a major and yet relatively unknown role within the motion sickness phenomena.

Computer simulations have emerged as important tools in preparation for outbreaks of infectious disease. To support the collaborative planning and responding to the outbreaks, reports from simulations need to be transparent (accessible) with regard to the underlying parametric settings. This paper presents a design for generation of simulation reports where the background settings used in the simulation models are automatically visualized. We extended the ontology-management system Protégé to tag different settings into categories, and included these in report generation in parallel to the simulation outcomes. The report generator takes advantage of an XSLT specification and collects the documentation for the particular simulation settings into abridged XMLs with summarized results and settings. We conclude that even though inclusion of critical background settings in reports may not increase the accuracy of infectious disease simulations, it can prevent misunderstandings and less than optimal public-health decisions.

Objective To examine the validity and usefulness of pandemic simulations aimed at informing practical decision-making in public health.

Methods We recruited a multidisciplinary group of nine experts to assess a case-study simulation of influenza transmission in a Swedish county. We used a non-statistical nominal group technique to generate evaluations of the plausibility, formal validity (verification) and predictive validity of the simulation. A health-effect assessment structure was used as a framework for data collection.

Findings The unpredictability of social order during disasters was not adequately addressed by simulation methods; even minor disruptions of the social order may invalidate key infrastructural assumptions underpinning current pandemic simulation models. Further, a direct relationship between model flexibility and computation time was noted. Consequently, simulation methods cannot, in practice, support integrated modifications of microbiological, epidemiological and spatial submodels or handle multiple parallel scenarios.

Conclusion The combination of incomplete surveillance data and simulation methods that neglect social dynamics limits the ability of national public health agencies to provide policy-makers and the general public with the critical and timely information needed during a pandemic.

Outbreak of a destructive pandemic influenza threatens to disrupt societies worldwide. International agencies and national governments have prepared plans and recommendations, but it is often decision-makers with the local authorities that are responsible for implementing the response. A central issue for these decision makers is what interventions are available and effective for the specific local community. The paper presents a simulator architecture and its relation to a workflow for decision support in influenza preparedness and response. The simulator can simulate pandemic scenarios, using localized community models, in the presence of various interventions to support an evaluation of potential response strategies. The architecture includes a customized modeling tool, separated from the simulation engine, which facilitates swift scenario modification and recalculation. This flexibility is essential both to explore alternative solutions in planning, and to adapt to changing requirements, information, and resources in outbreak response. An example simulation, based on actual population data from a reference city, illustrates the approach

Computer-based simulation of influenza outbreaks in local communities can help researchers, epidemiologists, and deci-sion makers better understand the impact of the community structure on the reproduction rate of disease and the relative benefits of different types of prevention and interventions. The goal of scenario modeling is to develop a description of scenario components, such as the disease, community, and inter-vention models. An ontology-based representation of the sce-nario model together with a modeling tool, which is based on an extension to Protégé, assist scenario developers in formu-ating simulation specifications. This approach allows the exploration of new ideas by rapidly formulating and reconstructing scenarios from novel components.

Development of strategies for mitigating the severity of a new influenza pandemic is a global public health priority. The aim of this study is to examine effects on simulation outcomes caused by variations in local socio-demographic data. We used a spatially explicit geo-physical model of a virtual city as a baseline and employed an ontology-modeling tool to construct alternative population distributions and household structures. We found that adjustment for the case when single parents in practice were cohabiting led to a higher reproduction ratio than that observed for a population with the highest formally recorded share of households with >2 children. When antivirals sufficient to protect 10 percent of the population were administered to schoolchildren, a preliminary effect on the reproduction ratio was observed. This effect was eliminated when the household structure was adjusted for cohabiting single parents. Nations have been encouraged to develop estimates of morbidity and mortality during a possible pandemic outbreak. In order to deal with ecological fallacy, the present results suggest that this recommendation can be extended also to local communities.

During emergency response, emergency management and its command and control system are particularly challenged as the responding taskforce puts countermeasures in place intensively and dynamically. To respond effectively these countermeasures are typically coordinated through collaborative work of commanding staff. Information seeking, communication, and data sharing are essential elements of this collaborative command and control work. The traditional research methods used in command and control research do not always allow researchers to fully investigate these elements of collaborative work.

In this paper, we describe the roleplaying exercise, a real-time approach combining role-playing games and emergency management exercises, for studying collaborative command and control, particularly during improvisation and adaptation work. We also describe the practical application of the role-playing exercise approach in the ALFA-05 research study. This is followed by a discussion on methodological lessons learned from this study. This includes simulation realism and control, ecological and communication settings, and data collection. Our experience suggests that the role-playing exercise approach can be considered as a feasible method for research studies, where interaction and communication of commanding staff are in focus.

Paper

In this paper, methodological issues in research and training of complex command and control structures in emergency management are addressed. In particular, a methodological approach combining real-time role-playing exercise, after action review and observations is presented. An explorative study — ALFA-05 — utilizing this approach is described. A brief overview of methodological aspects of preparation and execution is given. Further, experience gained and methodological lessons learned are also discussed. Finally, real-time role-playing exercise in combination with other methods is suggested as a feasible method for researchers and exercise managers to tackle present and future command and control in complex settings, where interaction and communication are in focus. In addition, areas for further development of the real-time role-playing exercises as a research method are suggested.

Objective: To analyze the design of a simulation environment for dynamic prediction of influenza transmission in local communities.

Methods: The technique trade-off method was used to identify and analyze basic design requirements on a simulation environment for modelling of influenza transmission. Data were collected through literature review and interviews with infectious disease experts. The identified requirements were matched to a set of design issues for the simulation environment, and a lo-fi prototype was implemented.

Results: Basic reproductive numbers for influenza transmission in a set of Swedish municipalities were calculated. Tradeoffs were necessary in the design between a focus on reproductive numbers vs. case fatality proportions, algorithm validity vs. model adaptability, and specificity in population description vs. generalizability.

Conclusion: Local authorities preparing for influenza outbreaks can use simulations proactively. Balanced tradeoffs between formal accuracy and analysis efficiency are important in simulation environment design.

Objective: quantitative evaluation of the triage operations (predicted vs real performance, time flows from different settings) performed by European Master in Disaster Medicine students during the full-size exercise held in Casalvolone (Italy) as a final test at the end of the residential course.

Methods: The storyboard of the exercise was a terrorist attack, a double explosion during the inauguration of the new building (two floors) of the public school. The number of moulaged casualties was 104, all undergraduate students of the Faculty of Medicine of the Università del Piemonte Orientale who had a 24 hours course on Disaster Medicine and were taught to play a specific storyboard with physical parameters that could change following different kind of medical treatment.

Each mock victim was provided with a patient data card with an identification number and the basic vital parameter (heart rate and respiratory rate). The triage system used was START.Casualties were divided in 10 black, 15 red, 36 yellow and 43 green codes.The out-of-hospital drill site was organized into four different treatment areas: the crash area, the collecting area, the advanced medical post and the hospital. Inside the crash area there were three observers on the ground floor and two observers on the first floor, to accurately record: the triage data as colour code and timing and care performed by the EMDM students.All the observers were member of the EMDM staff and were properly trained and instructed several days before the exercise. The data collection has been done on specific cards.Data have been integrated in the software CITE® that can monitor the path through the different treatment areas, the clinical history and the cares delivered until the final arrival at the hospital for each victim. CITE® uses data collected, including pictures and videos, to construct a time-synchronised, discrete-event representation of the course of events of the rescue operations. The resulting model can be presented in a visualisation tool, CITE Explorer®, which supports time-based navigation and animation using multiple views.The triage tags assigned by the EMDM students were compared to the predicted ones. The percentage of over/under triage was calculated.

Results: The triage procedures on the crash area (160 mq2 on two floors) were completed in 37 minutes. The triage error percentage concerning the pre-assigned reds and yellows tags causalities was 60% (9/15 red) (21/35 yellow). Black and green tag causalities were all correctly triaged.

Conclusions: The correct rate of triage for red and yellow code was quite good in relation to the complexity of the full size exercise. Time to complete triage was very good.

Definitions:
EMDM: European Master in Disaster Medicine
START: Simple Triage and Rapid Treatment

Communication is crucial in the command and control of distributed, safety-critical human activities, such as firefighting, law enforcement, and military operations. In such environments, multiple teams operate at separate locations under hazardous conditions to achieve common goals. Commanders, team leaders, and specialists must exchange plans, procedures, reports, and orders to coordinate and synchronize their efforts.

Communication provides an observable trace of how key actors have perceived the emerging situation and what decisions they have made. Therefore, recording and analyzing communication from multiple channels are important means of gaining insight into the processes involved in the command and control of multiple teams.

Our approach to communication analysis combines rich representations of context with explorative analysis tools. A key contribution in this respect is the support for reconciling multiple views of a complex, distributed operation to facilitate team training, systems design, and systems validation.

Live simulation exercises is an important means of training key personnel for crisis management. Analyzing realistic exercises provides indications of whether plans, procedures, and organization structures are appropriate. The paper describes how information probing can be used to facilitate critical incident training and evaluation. The approach combines process tracing, communication analysis, and visualization. An application example from Fortum Generation AB illustrates how the method supported critical incident training and evaluation in the power-generating industry. Simulated critical incidents were superimposed on the ordinary operations in a control center and the resulting measures were recorded digitally. The operators’ communication load increased 100 percent. The arising information patterns were analyzed and the results were used both to debrief the exercise participants and to evaluate plans, procedures and organization structure. A concluding discussion covers the lessons learned from this application.

Management and response in the case of an emergency is a very demanding task. Rescue missions can involve numerous individuals and teams working together to save lives and property. The outcome of a rescue mission depends to a large extent on the responding units’ ability to co-operate and the overall co-ordination of their efforts. This in turn makes it important to investigate how to support the decision makers in emergency situations. The evacuation of multiple victims from an incident scene requires overall situation assessment, triage, first aid and efficient use of different transportation resources. From the time when the incident alert reach the emergency call operator to the end of the rescue mission, a flow of information will reach dispatchers, commanders, team leaders and first responders. In this chaotic environment the rescue commander must create his situation awareness and manage immediate decision problems as well as make plans in advance. The initial problem is to assess the magnitude of the incident and to allocate the proper amount of rescue resources. As the mission evolves the initial plan has to be revised due to known and unknown constraints, changes, and miss-calculations. Computer-based support tools can be valuable in planning the use of multiple resources with various properties. Even when managing a limited number of different resources it soon becomes hard for a human to efficiently control the use of them. If we add time pressure, life threatening situations and lack in communication, we have further increased the complexity of the situation.

In this paper we describe simulation as a tool for detecting possible problems when planning for rescue operations. During the planning process, we use a simulation engine and an automatic planner to check for possible problems with the current mission plan. That is, we use the current mission plan and updated information from the field to continuously check the plan against constraints and time-lags that may have appeared. If the system detects that the current situation deviates from the plan or if the plan is revised by the mission commander, a simulation is initiated to explore possible problems and to find alternative solutions. The results are presented in different views and our goal is to provide the commander with information that he can act on before a problem appears. In this way, the plan will incrementally evolve during the mission and hopefully reflect the realities of the situation to higher extent than the initial plan. The system will support the decision maker by alerting for future problems in the plan and by generating descriptions of alternative actions that will avoid the problem if possible. However, the decision maker still has to make the decisions and continue to manage the mission.

The paper presents the design of a simulator of influenza outbreaks in local communities and the results of initial tests. The purpose of the simulator is to support local decision makers in analyzing and predicting the effects of various public health interventions, both for planning before an epidemic and for disease control during an outbreak. Combining models of population structure, disease dynamics, and intervention strategies, the simulator provides an estimate of the reproductive number, which is a measure of how rapidly the disease spreads in a community. Model requirements, simulator algorithms, and design tradeoffs are described and discussed in the light of results from four Swedish municipalities.

Emergency management in highly dynamic situations consists of exploring options to solve a planning problem. This task can be supported through the use of visual cues that are based on domain knowledge of the current domain. We present an approach to use visualization of critical constraints in timelines and hierarchical views as decision support in mass-casualty emergency situations.

The article presents an approach to emergency response training that combines simulation of hazardous environmental factors with extensive registration of the activities in a training scenario. Simulation enhances realism by exposing the trainees to representations of hazards without putting them at risk. Registration generates data that describe the course of events in the exercise. These data form a mission history, which is a time-synchronized, event-based model of the exercise that can be replayed and reviewed in the MIND presentation tool to support debriefing in an after-action review. We illustrate our approach by discussing important training sequences and key events in two live emergency response exercises in Sweden and in the United States.

A major problem in the management of chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) threats is that it requires an integration of information from a variety of sources, both horizontally across multiple agencies and jurisdictions and vertically between organizational levels. The increasing coupling of information systems in networks makes this task even more demanding. Decision makers must learn to assess emerging dynamic situations from the information available to coordinate effective response. A key issue is the balance between acquiring more information and acting on the information available about an incident. To this end, we address the important issue of how to train CBRN decision makers in their roles and support systems.

Training is a cornerstone in preparing decision makers for CBRN incident management. This paper characterizes three main simulation-based approaches to training. Live simulation allows responders and decision makers to participate in a realistic exercise using actual equipment and procedures in the real environment. Virtual simulation enables key operators to interact in a simulated environment using computer models of real equipment. Constructive simulation uses computer models to represent both a complex environment and a large number of actors to train high-level decision makers in coordination and cooperation among agencies. We examine the merits of each approach for training CBRN decision making and discuss suitable ways of combining them. To illustrate our argument, we use an application example from the Swedish CBRN decision and training demonstrator.

When analyzing field trials to examine command and control, there is a great need for means of presenting, coordinating, exploring and analyzing large amounts of data captured from multiple sources. The products of this analysis include insights, reflections, questions, and hypotheses. From an epistemological point of view, it is crucial to maintain a solid chain of reasoning from the data captured in the field, through the presentation formats used in the analysis process, and to the results of the analysis delivered to the clients. To this end, we present the Metadata Workbench, which manages metadata in command and control analysis. This analysis tool embeds metadata in contextual information, coordinates them in time, and links them to the supporting data. Using the tool, multiple analysts, experts, and researchers can exchange comments on both data and metadata in a collaborative and explorative investigation of a complex scenario. The tool is implemented as a component in the MIND framework and is demonstrated using data from the command and control of distributed tactical operations.

Work can be complex for several reasons, and various kinds of complexity put different demands on human behaviour and problem solving. We argue that there is a need for a tighter coupling between the characteristics of complexity and the characteristics of cognition in systems design for complex work. This paper outlines a proposal for such a framework. The framework couples existing models of complexity with well-known models of human skill and cognitive styles to provide a tool for capturing system and personnel needs in systems design processes. It relies on the identification of sources of complexity in the work domain, and can be used in a method-independent fashion to guide predictions on cognitive demands. The development of a military command and control support system for helicopter units is used to exemplify the use of the proposed framework.

The management of chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) threats requires integration of information from a variety of sources, both horizontally across multiple agencies and jurisdictions and vertically between organizational levels. For this reason, preparedness to deal with CBRN events could gain immensely from network-centric approaches to command and control and decision-making. At the same time, this diversity of participants poses challenges, as a solution must accommodate many views on problems, priorities, and procedures. The Swedish concept of Total Defense serves as the starting point for the transition into the network-centric future. The paper presents a test bed approach for bridging the gap between vision and reality in the CBRN area. Using the test bed to conduct experiments and demonstrations makes it possible to bring together practitioners, designers, and developers in a creative environment to explore future concepts and services in CBRN decision support.

Training is extremely important to establish and tune an effective and efficient response system capable of handling new threats to public safety. The paper characterizes the unique conditions for training responders from multiple agencies within separate jurisdictions. Examples from four full-scale emergency response exercises cover weapons of mass-destruction, urban environments, and political violence. In each such live simulation exercise, computer tools based on modeling and visualization supported feedback and evaluation to promote effective cross-organizational learning.

Terrorism with weapons of mass destruction presents numerous challenges to authorities and responders in the public safety area. Training is extremely important to establish and tune an effective and efficient response system capable of handling chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear events. The paper characterizes the unique conditions for training responders from multiple agencies within separate jurisdictions. Examples from four full-scale emergency response exercises cover weapons of mass-destruction, urban environments, and political violence. In each such live simulation exercise, computer support based on modeling and visualization supported feedback and evaluation to promote effective cross-organizational learning.

Communication is a central activity in command and control. However, analysing communication using linear transcription of large amounts of sequential data is tedious and time consuming. The article summarizes an alternative approach to communication analysis based on visual exploration of abstract representations of communication. It introduces a visualisation technique based on the Attribute Explorer. The technique was implemented in a visualisation component embedded in a framework for coordinated presentation of temporal data.

The transportation of people and freight of cargo increase as the numbers of high-speed vessels and huge cargo ships steadily grow. In addition, large cargoes of dangerous bulk freights are shipped across our seas and through the shallow waters of our archipelagoes. This emerging situation calls for new means of navigation concepts in order to support the man on the bridge. In this paper we describe how modeling and simulation can be used to explore possible approaches to future navigation. We emphasize the importance of keeping in mind the realities of life at sea, whenever researchers and developers use modeling, simulation and visualization to present innovative concepts for professional practitioners.

Communication is a rich source for analysis of complex socio-technical systems such as command and control. Although observable, often accessible, and multidimensional, communication data give rise to demanding analyses. In addition, these analyses must support keeping the context available, considering the situated nature of command and control activities. This paper presents methods and tools for exploratory analysis of communication. We report communication analysis results from military exercises, where the tools were used to explore commanders information needs as a step in an ongoing development of a command and control support system.

The world is changing. To sustain and develop our society’s ability to handle a wide spectrum of new threats, all defense organizations must continuously and relentlessly strive to attain higher levels of proficiency and readiness. Research can support this effort by providing methods and tools needed in the transformation of our forces.

This book has two parts. The first part describes a set of methods and tools, based on modeling, simulation, and visualization, for documenting and analyzing field trials. Using this toolbox, it is possible to capture live exercises, validation experiments, and field studies and represent them in a computer model. Experts, developers, and researchers can then use the models to evaluate and assess, for example, the readiness of a task force, the feasibility of a novel technical solution, or the pros and cons of a proposed layout of a command center.

The second part comprises a collection of eleven research papers that report on the development and use of the methods and tools described in the first part.

Incident commanders at the Linkping Fire Department in Sweden used digital cameras to document rescue operations for 15 months. They shared the photographs with their colleagues and managers through a database on the local network of the main fire station. We describe the hardware and software used and present initial results regarding their use for documenting and analyzing rescue operations. We also give a specific example of how responders used digital photographs to reconstruct the course of events of a major fire in a factory building and how the resulting time line facilitated the analysis of the incident.

When an emergency occurs, it is of the utmost importance that the teams managing this emergency are well prepared. In order to achieve this, training teams, also in a multi-service context, is a necessity. A major misconception is that, just by being involved in training, the team members will learn from it. Teams will, however, only learn from a training event when several conditions are met. First, the training should be based on valid training objectives. The training should be systematically designed to guarantee that the team could show the behavior as described in these training objectives. Secondly, it cannot be predicted what kinds of emergencies will occur and which outcomes are best. Therefore, the focus of the training should not be on the product, but rather on the team processes. Next, the measurement of the teams performance should be based on the training objectives and capture the team processes. Besides, a systematic performance measurement will facilitate the feedback to the team. Finally, the training staff, especially the observers and debriefers, should be provided with adequate supporting tools. Both TNO Human Factors and FOI have many years of research and training experience in emergency management. In this paper, we will give our view on training emergency management teams following the conditions mentioned before: design and development of team training, training team processes, performance measurement and feedback and supporting the training staff. We will end with a discussion in which we will share our intentions on teaming up together.

Airborne medical evacuation (MEDEVAC) is vital for maintaining a reliable lifeline for military personnel in tactical operations. Medical evacuation must be reliable and efficient independent of the threat level of the operation. Not only must the medical personnel be proficient in trauma surgery, but they also must be able to work in the confined environment of a helicopter and to co-operate with other members of the crew. Finally, the MEDEVAC team has to work together with other units and communicate through the same command and control system. Several methods and tools have been presented for supporting the training of medical personnel involved in military and civilian rescue operations. Typically, these state-of-the-art training aids address a specific training issue concerning a particular function in an operational scenario. In this paper we present how methods and tools based on modelling and simulation can support multiple stages of MEDEVAC training. We describe the various stages ranging from individual skill training to full-scale applied tactical training of MEDEVAC units. Finally, we discuss present and future training needs and opportunities relevant for the MEDEVAC community.

In this paper, we describe steps towards integrated NBC decision support in crisis management. The central tenet of our approach is that agile management of NBC events requires effective and efficient information sharing between actors belonging to different organizations. The development of information technology enables this transformation, but technology alone is not sufficient. Civilian and military agencies must adapt their organization structures, command principles, support systems, and training methods in a process of coevolution. Simulations, experiments, and exercises are important means of developing enhanced capabilities for managing NBC threats. This transformation represents a paradigm shift in the way NBC events are managed across organizations. Our contribution to this process is a test bed that supports experiments with information-enabled network services for acquiring and combining information from multiple sources to provide timely NBC decision support. We present the principal components of the test bed and describe how we used it in a demonstration. Finally, we discuss the benefits of test beds and experiments in the development of integrated NBC decision support for future crisis management.

The report discusses aspects of integrated NBC decision support in the light of network-centric approaches. It describes how a test bed was used in two demonstrations to interconnect various sensors, models, and simulations. Furthermore, the report illustrates how a test bed can be used to introduce new technologies and to illustrate the benefits and limitations of new concepts. The approach is based on the assumption that prototypes and simulations are useful in the transformation process by allowing designers and users a tangible representation of future solutions. Such representations can demonstrate the usefulness and benefits of novel concepts as well as provide glimpses of new new technology in a relevant context.

Modern wireless networks together with the widespread use of mobile telephones have increased the possibility to reach groups of people and individuals. It is possible to use such an infrastructure to communicate warnings and instructions to the public in case of severe incidents. For example, emergency operators can send targeted warnings to people at risk in selected geographical areas.

A problem with traditional methods, such as warning people by radio and television, is the time lag between the incident and the actual broadcast. Delays occur at several stages, such as locating the appropriate decision maker, obtaining approval, and preparing the message for broadcasting. In practice, broadcast warnings are used rarely because most everyday incidents are below the threshold for such general public warnings. We believe that mobile-phone networks are suitable for emergency warnings, because they can send messages promptly to a targeted group of people without involving such general broadcasts.

Using two different scenarios, we explore the possibilities to provide early emergency warning in initial incident phases through modern wireless networks. For both scenarios, we study how the initial incident phases can be better utilized in order to communicate early warnings, instructions, and important information through wireless networks, thus increasing public safety and taking further advantage of our society’s investments in mobile communications infrastructure.

Our society frequently faces minor and major crises that require rapid intervention by well-prepared forces from military organizations and public-safety agencies. Feedback on the performance in operations is crucial to maintain and improve the quality of these forces. This thesis presents methods and tools for reconstruction and exploration of tactical operations. Specifically, it investigates how multimedia representations of tactical operations can be constructed and used to help participants, managers, and analysts uncover the interaction between distributed teams and grasp the ramifications of decisions and actions in a dynamically evolving situation. The thesis is the result of several field studies together with practitioners from the Swedish Armed Forces and from the public-safety sector in Sweden and the United States. In those studies, models of realistic exercises were constructed from data collected from multiple sources in the field and explored by participants and analysts in subsequent after-action reviews and in-depth analyses. The results of the studies fall into three categories. First, we explain why multimedia representations are useful and demonstrate how they support retrospective analysis of tactical operations. Second, we describe and characterize a general methodology for constructing models of tactical operations that can be adapted to the specific needs and conditions in different domains. Third, we identify effective mechanisms and a set of reusable representations for presenting multimedia models of operations. An additional contribution is a domain-independent, customizable visualization framework for exploring multimedia representations.

Analyzing command and control in tactical operations is an important means of determining whether the procedures and equipment used to coordinate the efforts of multiple, distributed units are appropriate and whether key personnel are able to complete their tasks. This analysis must consider communication between multiple actors working in a dynamically evolving operational environment. We argue that multimedia models of distributed work, systematically constructed from operational data, can help participants, managers, and analysts to grasp the ramifications of decisions and actions in a distributed dynamic environment. We describe a modeling method and a visualization framework and discuss their application to the analysis of command and control in emergency response operations.

Airborne medical evacuation (MEDEVAC) is vital for maintaining a safe lifeline for military personnel in tactical operations. Medical evacuation must be reliable and efficient, independent of the threat level of the operation. Not only must the medical personnel be proficient in trauma surgery, they also must be able to work as a team in the confined environment of a helicopter. The various stages of MEDEVAC training reviewed in this paper, from individual skill training to full-scale, applied tactical training, lend themselves to a variety of simulation tools and devices. Promising modeling and simulation methods and tools for training individuals, teams, and taskforces are identified. Finally, we discuss how present and future means of modeling and simulation can support and enable MEDEVAC training to meet todays changing and challenging missions.

Communication is a central activity in command and control. However, analysing communication using linear transcription of large amounts of sequential data is tedious and time consuming. This paper describes an alternative approach to communication analysis based on visual exploration of abstract representations of communication. It introduces a visualisation technique based on the Attribute Explorer. The technique was implemented in a visualisation component embedded in a framework for coordinated presentation of temporal data. It is demonstrated using authentic communication data from a military exercise and a rescue operation.

This paper received the Best Paper Award at the Sixth International Conference on Information Visualization in London, England, 2002.

Properly trained and instructed observers have an important role in training. They can provide information about key events, critical decisions and the consequences of actions taken by participants during a training event. Their contributions are invaluable for evaluating operational performance in relation to the training goals. However, economic restrictions in training budgets limit the number of professional observers affordable. Instead training organizations increasingly have to rely on outside and untrained personnel to perform observation tasks. In this paper we address the problem of training novice observers to carry out observation tasks in team and taskforce training in both live and virtual settings. We examine the skills required for various tasks and explore ways of designing corresponding training programs. As a minimum such a program has to cover the purpose of the activity to be observed, the process and required focus of the observations, the tools and procedures to be used, and the expected results. We illustrate our approach with examples of how we trained novice observers in taskforce exercises in response to simulated mass-casualty incidents.

In many air forces advanced computer equipment is being used for after-action review and evaluation. These tools hopefully help the student pilot to understand his mistakes, but they neither give him a chance to immediately correct what went wrong, nor provide a view of what would have happened had he acted differently. Although some simulators provide some support to this end, the full potential of this concept is seldom used. Especially in combination with run-time analysis of the tactical situation—pedagogically presented to the student pilot—very powerful learning effects can be achieved. The Swedish Defence Research Agency, in cooperation with the Swedish Armed Forces Headquarters, is currently pursuing the WVR Illustrator Project. The purpose of this project is to explore the enhanced training effects given by a suite of pedagogical tools. In addition, the purpose is to provide a test-bed for trying out new ideas regarding visual presentation of tactical situations. Ideas that pass the tests in the WVR Illustrator will be further evaluated in more complex simulator environments. Furthermore, this system is built using COTS equipment, resulting in a total project cost that is only a fraction of the cost of a regular fighter simulator system. The system itself consists of one instructor station and two pilot stations. Motion Trackers sense the pilots´ head positions, and the virtual environment is presented to the pilots in Head Mounted Displays. This enables them to turn their heads and look in all directions that would be possible in a real dogfight. This paper describes the current status of the project, the scientific results derived from it and the plans for further development. A wide range of pedagogical tools regarding time and space are being illustrated, such as Frozen Time, Slow Fight, Quick Fight, Mistake Correction, Exchanged Positions, Cheat Roll and Energy Analysis.

Early warning to our citizens in case of emergency incidents, whether deliberate or accidental, can increase public safety substantially. Selective warnings and instructions can limit the negative consequences of an incident by making people on their way into, or passing through, the incident area aware of the threat, thus increasing the possibility for them to avoid the hazard. With the increased use of cellular phones and the infrastructure of the emerging high-capacity wireless networks with large geographical coverage, new possibilities arise to reach a selection of individuals in a specific area. Already today, the wireless networks have increased the ability for the public to report incidents and emergencies to rescue authorities. In this paper we explore the possibility to take additional advantage of the wireless networks in order to deliver selective early warnings to people in or close to a hazardous area. Sending appropriate information in a comprehensible format requires that the target audience can be identified, for example based on geographical location, means of transportation, movement in relation to the incident, and language preferences. We investigate criteria for selecting the target audience, means of customizing message contents, suitable media, and technical requirements and limitations. We analyze these points in relation to practical examples and discuss potential applications.

In many air forces advanced computer equipment is being used for after-action review and evaluation. These tools hopefully help the student pilot to understand his mistakes, but they neither give him a chance to immediately correct what went wrong, nor provide a view of what would have happened had he acted differently. Although some simulators provide some support to this end, the full potential of this concept is seldom used. Especially in combination with run-time analysis of the tactical situation—pedagogically presented to the student pilot—very powerful learning effects can be achieved.

The Swedish Defence Research Agency, in cooperation with the Swedish Armed Forces Headquarters, is currently pursuing the WVR Illustrator Project. The purpose of this project is to explore the enhanced training effects given by a suite of pedagogical tools. In addition, the purpose is to provide a test-bed for trying out new ideas regarding visual presentation of tactical situation. Ideas that pass the tests in the WVR Illustrator will be further evaluated in more complex simulator environments. Furthermore, this system is built using COTS equipment, resulting in a total project cost that is only a fraction of the cost of a regular fightersimulator system. The system itself consists of one instructor station and two pilot stations. Motion Trackers sense the pilots´ head positions, and the virtual environment is presented to the pilots in Head Mounted Displays. This enables them to turn their heads and look in all directions that would be possible in a real dogfight.

This paper describes the current status of the project, the scientific results derived from it and the plans for further development. A wide range of pedagogical tools regarding time and space are being illustrated, such as Frozen Time, Slow Fight, Quick Fight, Mistake Correction, Exchanged Positions, Cheat Roll and Energy Analysis.

A framework for modeling and visualization of complex distributed tactical operations, such as military missions, can support the analysis and evaluation of units and systems in the Swedish Armed Forces to facilitate both development processes and training. The report presents three case studies addressing different aspects of maritime operations: navy operations, amphibious operations, and civilian-military cooperation. For each case, the report describes how modeling and visualization was used to reconstruct a retrospective picture of the course of events of the operation. Together, the case studies show that a framework of methods and tools can support modeling and visualization of different types of naval operations at the level of squad, ship, and taskforce. The framework manages general and recurring tasks, such as the presentation of geographical information in various reference systems. At the same time, it is flexible enough to accommodate customized models representing specific properties of individual units. Finally, the report discusses how the methods and tools in the framework can facilitate international operations.

The performance of a command-post staff has a decisive effect on the outcome of a rescue operation when it comes to co-ordination and management of various rescue forces. Monitoring and documentation of the internal work and communication processes that take place in a command team can increase the ability to investigate and understand cause-effect relationships between incoming field reports, operational procedures, decisions, commands and the rescue response in the field. To this end we present a method and a software tool that enable an observer to monitor and record communication events in a command staff. The method extends link analysis by introducing time stamping and classification of events. Thus, extended link analysis enables both cumulative measures and detailed temporal analysis of staff communication. The software tool supports configuration, monitoring, time stamping and classification of communication events. It can export data in standard formats for statistical analysis and visualisation.

Emerging web-based technologies enable information sharing within and among rescue agencies and organisations. This development can facilitate education, training and development through effective distribution of documentation, models and lessons learned from training exercises and rescue operations. We discuss central aspects of this enterprise such as the need for domain-specific data models, methodologies for detailed exercise documentation, and the design of presentation and visualisation tools. Based on this investigation we present a framework that supports modelling, documentation and visualisation of rescue operations for web-based distribution. We briefly describe the implementation of the components of the framework. Finally, we discuss how to apply the methodology and framework to training of first responders and university-level education of emergency managers and officials.

Visualization of rescue operations and exercises can help responders and managers to learn from experience. Detailed visual models of the response to various emergencies enable them to systematically identify strengths and shortcomings in performance as well as in plans, procedures and equipment. We describe a method and a software tool for capturing the activities of the responding units during a real incident or exercise to create a self-contained visual representation of the operation. This model can then be replayed and analyzed. The software tool provides a flexible and extensible environment that can host models and visualization components for many different types of operations. Because the environment defines a set of plug-in interfaces it is straightforward to add new components to meet arising needs for new types of data and presentation views. We present the essential features of the software and show how we used it in a field trial.

With growing population centers and an increased incidence of chemical spills, the lives of many innocent people are at risk. Intense media coverage has heightened public awareness with the demand for better emergency response that includes well-managed crisis teams who can respond to all facets of a large-scale emergency. The result has been a growing need to train emergency responder teams not only to perform their individual specialties, but also to coordinate and cooperate with multiple agencies to accomplish this training. A most unique emergency response exercise was staged in central Florida to meet this training need. Not only did it involve multiple police and fire-rescue agencies located in Central Florida and a team of Swedish researchers and public safety officials; various simulations, technology and computer software programs were also used to heighten realism and provide feedback to the participants. This paper explores the roles of the participants; crisis coordination among agencies and the rules governing each and the lessons learned; as well as assessing the capabilities provided to emergency preparedness exercises through simulation and their usefulness in training and evaluation.

The performance of a command-post staff has a decisive effect on the outcome of an operation when it comes to co-ordination and management of various units of a taskforce. Monitoring and documentation of the internal work and communication processes that take place in a command team can increase the ability to investigate and understand cause-effect relationships between incoming field reports, operational procedures, decisions, commands and the activities in the field. To this end we present a cognitive systems engineering approach to the command and control problem, where the work of the command-post staff must be analysed in the context of the overall taskforce mission. In this paper we describe a method and a software tool that enable an observer to monitor and record communication events in a command post staff. The method extends link analysis by introducing time stamping and classification of events. Thus, extended link analysis (ELA) enables both cumulative measures and detailed temporal analysis of staff communication. The software tool supports configuration, monitoring, time stamping and classification of communication events. Extending a computer-based instrumentation system, such as the MIND system, with ELA facilitates the cognitive systems engineering approach and improve understanding of internal processes in the command-post staff.

Emergency incidents are by nature complex and demanding. Responders often have to work under time pressure and sometimes even under life-threatening conditions. The quality of the activities that the responders carry out during the incident often has a decisive effect for the total outcome of the operation. To be able to learn and improve from past experience it is necessary to be able to reflect on the rescue performance in relation to the specific incident. However, it is difficult for the responders to recapitulate the course of events and to be fully impartial about their own performance during the operation.
Based on the successful results from the training domain we are now ready to start investigating what methods and tools used in computer-supported full-scale emergency training are applicable for monitoring real emergency incidents. Our approach is to form a team of decision makers, scientists and responders capable of addressing these issues. In this paper we describe the first steps in a research initiative that will provide the responders with means of detailed registration of rescue activities. Together with flexible visualisation tools we strive for improved feedback and evaluation after each rescue mission.

Effective emergency management and response require a thorough understanding of the processes involved in a rescue operation and their interaction. Appropriate methods and tools for computer visualisation of rescue operations can greatly facilitate activities such as command and control, system analysis, training, evaluation, and transfer of lessons learned. We introduce a method for systematic analysis and modelling of a rescue scenario. The models serve as the basis for data collection during the operation. The data collected are visualised in a computer tool with several views that can be customised according to the needs of different users. We demonstrate the method by applying it to a rescue operation where a taskforce trains emergency response to a chemical incident.

In recent years several methods and tools have been presented for supporting the training of commanders and personnel involved in military and civilian rescue operations. Typically, these state-of-the-art training aids address a specific training issue concerning a particular function in an operational scenario. Examples of such aids are triage training for physicians using a simulated accident scene, training for medical personnel using a human patient simulator, and command-post training using a simulated emergency scenario. However, there is a significant need for examining the implications of this new technology when it comes to developing adequate training programs for integrated task forces, consisting of units from different organisations. In particular, it is important to identify the critical phases of an operation, to define the training needs in these phases, to identify the appropriate training aids for each of the phases, and most important, to ensure that the training conducted can be co-ordinated, reviewed and evaluated in terms of mission-level parameters. In this paper we study these issues in the context of medical attention in a mass-casualty incident. We introduce a casualty-flow network model to identify critical functions and use it to explore training needs. Based on our findings we review several existing training aids and discuss their applicability to emergency response training.

Changes in the geopolitical situation have led to the introduction of a more flexible and adaptable structure of the Swedish defence in order to meet four basic objectives. This structure requires a new set of principles for command and control as well as powerful decision support and training systems to aid the personnel that effectuate those principles. To this end we introduce the advanced NBC decision and training demonstrator as a means of investigating requirements, principles and technologies for the next-generation command and control systems in the NBC area. Based on a network principle we present a framework, which can accommodate existing and future sensors, models, simulations and tools in a flexible and extensible way, to support evolutionary development, experimental design, and research. The result of this undertaking will contribute to the development of command and control systems for the Swedish military and civilian defence organizations.

Emerging web-based technologies enable information sharing within and among rescue agencies and organisations. This development can facilitate education, training and development through effective distribution of documentation, models and lessons learned from training exercises and rescue operations. We discuss central aspects of this enterprise such as the need for domain-specific data models, methodologies for detailed exercise documentation, and the design of presentation and visualisation tools. Based on this investigation we present a framework that supports modelling, documentation and visualisation of rescue operations for web-based distribution. We briefly describe the implementation of the components of the framework. Finally, we discuss how to apply the methodology and framework to training of first responders and university-level education of emergency managers and officials.

The performance of a command-post staff has a decisive effect on the outcome of a rescue operation when it comes to co-ordination and management of various rescue forces. Monitoring and documentation of the internal work and communication processes that take place in a command team can increase the ability to investigate and understand cause-effect relationships between incoming field reports, operational procedures, decisions, commands and the rescue response in the field. To this end we present a method and a software tool that enable an observer to monitor and record communication events in a command staff. The method extends link analysis by introducing time stamping and classification of events. Thus, extended link analysis enables both cumulative measures and detailed temporal analysis of staff communication. The software tool supports configuration, monitoring, time stamping and classification of communication events. It can export data in standard formats for statistical analysis and visualisation.

The importance of efficient training methods is becoming increasingly clear in most organisations that are responsible for maintaining and developing civilian and military units for rescue operations in case of chemical incidents. To be able to learn from the conducted exercises it is vitally important to be able to give the trainees constructive feedback immediately after the exercise based on what really happened on the exercise field. This is however difficult because during large rescue operations the units work in parallel and geographically distributed. In addition, the rescue resources are limited and the personnel often work under time pressure and in hazardous environments. These problems call for a systematic approach to be able to record, delineate, establish and visualise the complex unfolding of a rescue operation in the important effort to support debriefing, after-action review, post-mission analysis and the development of effective courseware. To further utilise the training investments from full-scale exercises we describe an approach where we use the recorded dynamic training information together with traditional textbook information in the creation of a multimedia courseware. The courseware supports both individual linear learning and conceptual problem-based training. The possibility to distribute the courseware over the Internet, local Intranet and on CD-ROM makes it possible for individuals throughout the rescue community to take advantage of the lessons learned from different full-scale exercises even if they didn’t had the opportunity to participate in the specific exercise themselves. The flexible use and distribution of the digital courseware increase the possibility to provide stimulating education through a multimedia documentation of complex scenarios.

Ledningsträning och ledningsutveckling ur ett förändringsperspektiv

Försvarsmakten genomför nu en nödvändig ominriktning för att vara redo att lösa såväl befintliga som framtida uppgifter. Förändringarna i vår omvärld tillsammans med den snabba samhälls- och teknikutvecklingen gör en helt ny försvarsmaktsstruktur möjlig och nödvändig. Denna nya struktur kommer sannolikt drastiskt att förändra förutsättningarna för ledningen av våra olika framtida militära enheter. För att möta nya krav på vår förmåga att leda heterogena enheter ur totalförsvaret krävs en översyn och utveckling av ledningsträningsmetoder och ledningsträningsteknik. Rätt använd kan teknikutvecklingen också stödja bättre och mer kostnadseffektiv träning och utbildning. Detta kräver dock en samtidig metodutveckling där vi tar hänsyn till såväl träningsmål som nya tekniska möjligheter när vi utvecklar nya utbildnings- och träningsprogram. Utvecklingen inom ledningsträningsområdet måste genomföras stegvis och i symbios med ledningsutvecklingen. På så sätt kan vunna erfarenheter från ledningsträningen fortlöpande påverka ledningsutvecklingen och det blir möjligt att kontinuerligt öva ledningen i den operativa miljön.

Chemical incidents, whether they are peace-time accidents or war-time chemical attacks, can have severe consequences both in terms of people affected and damages sustained. A civilian or military commander facing this type of situation is in great need of efficient and easy-to-use decision support to deal with issues like who to warn, who to move out of the area and where it is safe to establish decontamination stations. In this paper we demonstrate how simulation models for chemical agent propagation are incorporated in a decision-support system for management of chemical weapon attacks. In a common framework, provided by a geographical information system, we combine models of different complexity and granularity to support rapid and automated warning, selective stand-down, chemical agent detection management and casualty predictions. The system has been implemented for incorporation in the Swedish Naval Forces C3I system and has been submitted for tactical evaluation.

Improving command and control of rescue operations requires methods to elucidate the dynamic interaction between different teams in a rescue force in a stressful situation. To this end, we present a method to monitor and visualise the utilisation of medical resources in mass-casualty incidents. The flow of casualties is monitored at specific checkpoints where each individual is assigned a time stamp. This process generates a timeline for each casualty which shows, in great detail, how he or she was transferred through the chain of medical attendance. These timelines can be combined to model the flow of casualties from the location of the incident, through various aid stations and assembly areas, to hospitals. The resulting flow model can be visualised using a software tool. We have applied the method to training exercises where we used it both to support debriefing after the exercise and to facilitate subsequent, in-depth analysis. We conclude by exploring ways to use time-stamped checkpoints as a means of supporting the management of medical resources in real emergency operations.

The paramount importance of efficient training methods is becoming increasingly clear in most armed forces as the technical sophistication of weapons and communications systems grows while the resources available for training are being reduced due to budget cuts and environmental restrictions. As a result, force-on-force battle training on instrumented ranges has become an established means of improving the effect of training, especially at the company and battalion level of mechanised units. The purpose of the instrumentation system is twofold: it simulates the effects of the main weapon systems to improve realism and it monitors and registers the activities on the training ground to support subsequent analysis and feedback. However, as armed forces are facing new tasks, such as peace-keeping, peace-enforcement and humanitarian assistance, the raining requirements change as well. It is therefore important to investigate to which extent existing instrumentation systems for battle training can support other types of full team training involving both military and civilian forces. In this paper, we report on a successful attempt to use an existing battle training instrumentation system (the MIND system, used by the Swedish Army since 1993) to support an emergency response exercise. In this exercise a rescue force consisting of firefighters, medical personnel, and police responded to a simulated chemical warfare attack on a railway junction in southern Sweden. 90 minutes after the end of the five-hour exercise all 230 participants attended the after-action review. We use this case to compare the technical and methodological requirements on the instrumentation system in support of battle training and emergency response training, respectively. Based on this analysis, and the practical implications of our field trials, we conclude that even if the available data sources vary and the simulation requirements are very different in the two domains, it is nevertheless possible to support both types of training in a single framework. Furthermore, we discuss the support of integrated training of relief forces made up of both military and civilian units.

The preparedness of our society to respond to major emergencies depends on a number of factors including adequate planning, available equipment and appropriate organisation of rescue forces and their command and control structures. Ultimately, the outcome of a rescue operation is determined by the ability of the personnel to master a dynamically unfolding situation utilising the resources at hand. To establish, maintain and develop this ability, throughout a rescue organisation, it is vital to provide efficient and recurrent training at individual, team and task-force level.

In this paper we concentrate on mission training, where several rescue teams, co-ordinated by a common commander and staff, respond to a fictitious emergency based on a selected training scenario. We identify the different phases of an emergency response exercise and investigate how a geographical information system (GIS) can support scenario selection, scenario tuning, data validation, simulation and analysis before, during and after an exercise. For instance, we demonstrate how a GIS provides information about limitations in terrain and infrastructure, which is used to select and tune a training scenario that is appropriate with respect to the training objectives of the exercise and the training status of the units. In another example we show how terrain information from a GIS provides input to a detailed simulation of the propagation of toxic agents, thus allowing for a more realistic representation of chemical hazards in the training situation.

We relate GIS to an existing mission training support system in an overview of their ability to efficiently support the different phases of a mission training exercise. We argue that they contribute in different ways. Generally, GIS supports the early phases, including exercise planning and scenario generation, and in-depth analysis after the exercise, including generation of alternative tactical solutions and plan modification based on lessons learned during the exercise. Conversely, a mission training support system typically upport simulation, data-collection and presentation during and after an exercise. We conclude that GIS has an important role to play in mission training exercises, but it remains an open issue how to best benefit from the support provided by GIS and mission training support systems, respectively.

Efficient training methods are important for establishing, maintaining and developing taskforces that are organised to manage complex and dangerous situations in order to serve and protect our society. Furthermore, the technical sophistication of various systems in these organisations, for example command, control and communication systems is growing, while the resources available for training are being reduced due to budget cuts and environmental restrictions. Realism in the training situation is important so that the actual training prepares the trainees for, and improves the performance in, real situations. The ability to observe and review the training course of events is crucial if we want to identify the strength and shortcomings of the trained unit, in the overall effort to improve taskforce performance.
This thesis describes and characterises methods and tools in computer-supported training of multiple teams organised in taskforces, which carry out complex and time-critical missions in hazardous environments. We present a framework that consists of a training methodology together with a system architecture for an instrumentation system which can provide different levels of computer support during the different training phases. In addition, we use two case studies to describe the application of our methods and tools in the military force-on-force battle-training domain and the emergency management and response domain.

Our approach is to use an observable realistic training environment to improve the training of teams and taskforces. There are three major factors in our approach to taskforce training that provide the necessary realism and the ability to make unbiased observations of the training situations. The first factor is the modelling and simulation of systems and factors that have a decisive effect on the training situation and that contribute in creating a realistic training environment. The second factor is the data collection that supports unbiased recording of the activities of the trained taskforce when solving a relevant task. The data are received both from technical systems and from reports based on manual observations. The third factor is the visualisation of compiled exercise data that provides participants and others with a coherent view of the exercise.

The main contribution of this thesis is the systematic description of the combination of a training methodology and a system architecture for an instrumentation system for computer-supported taskforce training. The description characterises the properties and features of our computer-supported taskforce-training approach, applied in two domains.

Modellering och simulering – ett instrument för taktisk och teknisk utveckling
Osäkerheten om hur den framtida striden kommer att se ut ställer stora krav på flexibilitet och anpassningsförmåga inom försvarsmakten. Inte minst gäller detta de framtida ledningssystemen. Samtidigt ger det minskade militära hotet tid till att utforska olika utvecklingsmöjligheter. En viktig komponent i denna process är förmågan att presentera en helhetsbild av våra förbands förmåga att lösa uppgifter vid olika konfliktnivåer. Genom att ur ett helhetsperspektiv klarlägga begränsande faktorer vad avser till exempel doktrin, förbandens organisation, teknisk utrustning och personalens utbildning skapas förutsättningar för en resursoptimal utveckling av vår framtida förmåga att lösa nya såväl som befintliga uppgifter. Det är mycket viktigt att denna analys sker baserad på faktisk grund skapad genom systematisk insamling och sammanställning av data från genomförd förbandsverksamhet och fältförsök. Modellering och simulering är två viktiga komponenter i de olika utvecklingsfaserna för att åstadkomma observerbarhet och realism i de studerade situationerna med målet att utveckla såväl taktik som teknik.

An unconditional necessity for effective execution of emergency response, military missions, and other high-risk, tactical operations is that missions are supported by highly capable management. This implies the need for an omnidirectional, continuous flow of information, ranging from the chief executive level to the team-on-site levels, and that information meets rigorous demands concerning reliability, availability and diagnosticity. Sometimes even individual operators and sensor systems must without delay be allowed to affect decisions and actions of a senior commander. These requirements cannot be fulfilled unless new and innovative methods, tools and technologies are developed to support comprehensive evaluation and assessment of tactical operations. In this paper, we employed a new technique of analysing team decision making and mission resource management of units performing tactical emergency response missions. In a pilot study we investigated the performance of the mission efficiency analysis technique by analysing the rapid response capabilities of tactical forces and tactical command teams The pilot study results indicated that the mission efficiency analysis technique supported this endeavour in an effective and timely manner, and using it in evaluating tactical situations will decisively impact tactical performance, and hence, the outcome of tactical missions. Based on these results, we concluded that the mission efficiency analysis technique have the potential to be successfully implemented in larger scale tactical exercises, and in evaluating actual high-risk, tactical operations as well.

A disaster scene is a complex and dangerous environment. The number of casualties recovered and lives saved during a rescue mission depend not only on the ability of the members of the rescue party to carry out their individual tasks, but also on the close cooperation between individuals and units, and the careful coordination of their efforts. Effective training of emergency management and response is mandatory to ensure the successful outcome of a rescue mission under these circumstances.

After-action analysis and evaluation are vital to improve training efficiency at large-scale rescue exercises. This task, however, is inherently difficult because the participating rescue units operate geographically separated, are assigned individual tasks, and carry out activities in parallel. In addition, the units are controlled by commanders at different levels and locations, who make decisions based on their perception of the current situation. As a consequence, there are as many views of the exercise as there are participants. To overcome this diversity, and thus provide a common frame of reference for subsequent analysis and evaluation, it is necessary to establish an objective view of the course of events. Instead of trying to investigate what happened, it then becomes possible to concentrate on why something happened.

In this paper we describe methods and tools for supporting after-action analysis and evaluation of large-scale rescue exercises. We concentrate on how to select, record, compile, and replay relevant events to provide a coherent view of a complex exercise. We demonstrate the various steps of our approach by relating to an emergency response exercise in Sweden in October 1997. During this exercise we registered more than 10,000 events and intercepted some 800 radio transmissions. The course of events were replayed to the 230 participants at the after-action review 90 minutes after the conclusion of the exercise.

In this paper we show how rescue exercises provide valuable information for supporting plan assessment. The key element of this approach is to combine extensive data collection with advanced compilation and replay tools to present a coherent objective view of the course of events of an exercise. By replaying the events afterwards, domain experts are able to identify relevant and measurable assessment parameters. In the paper we discuss assessment parameters such as the size of alerting areas, various delays that occur and the use of available resources. Examples of resources are transport capacity, first aid capacity and decontamination capacity. We demonstrate the different steps in our approach by describing the preparation, execution and analysis of a rescue exercise in Sweden in October 1997. During this exercise we followed 180 rescue personnel and 50 extras through the different phases of rescue and medical attendance after a simulated wartime chemical attack. We recorded more than 10,000 events and intercepted more than 800 radio transmissions. The data compiled were available for analysis 90 minutes after the end of the exercise.

The striking properties of tactical emergency response operations can be characterized in brief as constantly increasing risks and resource demands, and constantly decreasing reaction times. These dynamic properties raise a demand for increased personal and equipment performance requirements, and escalating needs for personal protection. The emergency response and management community also call for unique and innovative approaches to the mission command and control problem. Improving operator and commander abilities to manage and master these dynamics will have decisive impact on all decisions and selections of action, mission course of events, logistics, the number of casualties, and many other vital components of emergency response or other kinds of severe crisis. However, the specific skills and properties that managers and operators have to possess in order to yield optimal mission performance in such critical and uncertain situations are not easily identified, and hence, they are difficult to improve.

In this paper we outline our work on development of theories and models for acquisition, processing and representation of safety- and time-critical information, intended to aid decision makers performing complex and dangerous emergency response operations. We illustrate our work by applying this approach to a simulated chemical disaster as part of a recently conducted full-scale emergency response exercise in Sweden. The results indicate that supporting individual and team situation awareness in the execution of an operation, yields improved mission resource management and overall unit mission efficiency, and enhances mission endurance of the units and systems engaged in the mission. Determined and forward exploitation and control of these real-time, safety-critical operational dynamics are vital for success.

In this paper, we present an overview of the activities related to instrumented force-on-force battle training in the Swedish Army today and share some of the lessons learned on the way. In particular, we describe the different phases of a typical battle training exercise, including the preparation performed by the training unit and the training centre staff before the exercise, the arrangements made on the training site before the exercise, the execution of the exercise, the training command and supervision during the exercise, the compilation and examination of data collected during the exercise, and the after-action review. We also show how the information collected during a single exercise, or a series of exercises, can be used in technical or tactical analyses to identify potential problems with a particular piece of equipment or a specific operating procedure. In addition to evaluating each battle training exercise by means of an after-action review, it is equally important to systematically evaluate the techniques and methods used to support training. To this end we have devised a number of methods and tools which we report on in the paper.

In this paper, we describe how techniques and methods for supporting field experiments with simulated components embedded in real military units. We show how a Battle Monitoring system with mobile nodes for data collection and simulation is used to both simulate the components subject to evaluation and to record data from the field trial for subsequent analysis and assessment. To further illustrate our method, we give two examples: a virtual laser warning system and a virtual electronic warfare jammer. In our first example, we demonstrate a way to evaluate how laser warning capabilities affect the tactical behaviour of a unit. The second example describe a method to simulate the effect of electronic warfare in tactical situations, using jamming models of different complexity, without emitting any radio signals.

Force-on-force battle training is an established means of preparing military units for missions in crises and at war. To achieve realism in battle training, it is important that all major factors of the real battlefield are present in the training situation. Technical systems supporting force-on-force battle training typically focus on two issues: to provide a realistic, but non-lethal, battlefield and to perform data collection as a basis for after-action review. So far, these aspects of battle-training support systems have attracted significant interest, but considerably less attention has been paid to how the multitude of information generated during battle training is actually used.

In this paper, we explore how force-on-force battle training can provide valuable information in a number of contexts other than traditional after-action reviews. Accurate simulation and data collection during the training, together with careful filtering and analysis afterwards, increase our knowledge about the participating units abilities and shortcomings. Already at this stage, the knowledge is applicable for adaptation and development of tactics and equipment. Further refinement of the information forms a foundation for manual and automated modelling of DIS objects and command-post training.

For each of these cases, we investigate the requirements imposed on the simulation and data collection functions employed in the battle-training support system. As a reference system, we use the MIND system, which is an integrated simulation and data collection system for battle training with company-sized units.

To achieve realism in force-on-force battle training, it is important that the major factors of the battlefield are simulated in a realistic way. We describe an architecture for battle training and evaluation which provides a framework for integrating multiple sensors, simulators and registration equipment together with tools for analysis and presentation. This architecture is the basis for the MIND system, which is used in realistic battle training and for advanced after-action review. MIND stores the information recorded in a database which is the basis for subsequent analysis of training methods and improvement of tactics and military equipment. Data collected during battle training can support both modelling of Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) objects and the presented Time-delayed DIS (TDIS) approach. TDIS facilitates the training of staffs and commanders on high levels under realistic circumstances without the need of trainees and trainers on the lower unit levels. Systematic evaluation and assessment of the MIND system and its influence on realistic battle training can provide information about how to maximise the effect of the conducted battle training and how to best support other applications that use information from the system.